Emotional intelligence (EI)

Part of the MBA program im currently reading at London Metropolitan University i started reading about IE, even though i have known the word IE never attempted to thoroughly understand about it. Now that i have a fair idea about it thought this short read could help my network as well.

So whats its Emotional intelligence (EI)? 

EI refers to one's ability to recognize, understand, and manage his / her own emotions, as well as the emotions of others around you. It’s a skill that required in every human regardless of their personal / professional life. I will talk more about the importance of the EI & how one can practice EI to improve their quality of life in the future blogs. 

According to Landry, (2019) Typically its divided into four main domains as below. 

Self-Awareness: It is the ability to recognise your strengths, weaknesses as well as your emotions and understand how they affect your day to day life at personal level or professional level. 

Self-Management: refers to your ability to control your emotion. sometimes in simple terms we call it 'self control'. Its about how you can manage or control your emotions during extreme circumstances such as anger, stress, sad or even excess happiness. Your actions during these circumstances is reflected by your emotions.

Social Awareness: its about not only knowing & managing your own emotions, but also reading other’s emotions and act accordingly. When it comes to understanding others’ emotions 'empathy' is considered as a key attribute one should have. Ability to empathize and understand how the other person must be feeling, and reflect your self in the situation of the other person and think how you would you feel & react.

Relationship Management: this is the stage where you are aware of your emotions, knows how to manage it, you understand & read others emotions well. At this stage you might have already built great relationship and have good influence with people around you, based on your behaviour. Now you excel your self to guid, coach and mentor others around you. Manage conflicts among them effectively by helping them control their emotions. 

Source: (Williams, 2015)

References:

Landry, L. (2019). Emotional Intelligence in Leadership: Why It’s Important. [online] Business Insights Blog. Available at: https://online.hbs.edu/blog/post/emotional-intelligence-in-leadership#:~:text=Emotional%20intelligence%20is%20defined%20as. [Accessed 15 January 2023]

Williams, M. (2015). Emotional Intelligence - Global Leadership Foundation. [online] Global Leadership Foundation. Available at: https://globalleadershipfoundation.com/deepening-understanding/emotional-intelligence/. [Accessed 18 December 2022].

How to Motivate?

There are several methods the modern organizations uses to keep their employees motivated. These methods can be mainly broken into two. Monetarily vs non monetarily motivation. 

Non Monetarily Motivation.

Non monetarily motivation can be related to:

• Position, Designation or Promotion

• Recognition

• Level of relationship with one’s hierarchy & subordinates.

• Goals & tasks

• Work environment (Office space, working tools, working hours etc.,)

There are steps that a manager can take to help motivate their employees. First, the manager should always give the employee reasonable goals and set a time period to accomplish each goal. The goals should be work related, and once a set of goals has been reached, a new set of goals should be created. Second, a manager should always remember to treat his or her employees fairly, as this will create a positive environment for all employees, and it will help satisfy the employees’ needs. Third, managers can also restructure jobs to help motivate their employees, by adjusting the employees’ job descriptions (Randall et al, 2006). Rotation of jobs - involves moving employees through a range of jobs to increase interest and motivation (Panait & Panait, 2018).

Monetarily Motivation.

Monetarily motivation methods can be related

• Salary or Salary raise

• Commission 

• Bonuses 

• Dividends

• Foreign Trips

• Gifts

Financial incentives and rewards make continuation of the employment relationship because it create the basis for high levels of commitment so, firms must develop strategies that include financial incentives and rewards for example promotion, bonus, profit sharing or gain sharing and employees stock ownership etc (Saleem, 2011).

References:

Panait and Panait (2018). Trends in Non-Financial Motivation Policies of Employees. Global Economic Observer, 6(1), pp.148–153.

Randall, Novotny and Larson (2006). Is it Really all about the Money?: Motivating Employees in the 21st Century. Journal of Undergraduate Research at Minnesota State University, Mankato, 6(18), pp.2–8.

Saleem (2011). The Impact of Financial Incentives on Employees Commitment. European Journal of Business and Management, 3(4), pp.258–266.

Vroom’s Expectancy theory of Motivation

There are many motivational theories expressed in the literature over the years that approach motivation through different perspectives. Nonetheless, most theories would agree that motivation requires a desire to act, an ability to act, and having an objective (Ramlall, 2004). Motivational theories have been grouped in three main categories by taking into consideration different approaches as it follows. Vroom’s Expectancy theory of motivation falls under the category of ‘process theories’ which explains how motivation occurs, what factors influence it and what are the relations between those factors (SUCIU et al, 2013)

The expectancy theory of motivation was originally derived by victor Vroom  in 1964, this theory defines the process of decision making by individuals using various behavioral alternatives. The motivational force for a behavior, action, or task is a function of three distinct perceptions: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Motivational force is the force directing specific behavioral alternatives, which are suggested when deciding among behavior options (Chiang & Jang, 2008). The theory emphasizes some very important aspects or variables of management that are efforts, performance, rewards and personal goals. It establishes relationships between effort, performance, rewards and personal goals and tries to synthesize all these into one theory of motivation. (Parijat & Bagga, 2014)

According to Vroom, the motivational force that drives behavior is a product of these three variables and can be represented by the equation: (Lloyd and Mertens, 2018).

Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence

Expectancy explains the subjective probability of the effort resulting in an outcome (called the first level outcome). 3 The value of expectancy will vary between 0 and 1. 0 level of expectancy means that our maximum effort will also not result in any change in performance. In other words the probability of improvement in performance is nil. An expectancy of the level of 1 means that our effort will lead to highly successful or the best performance. In other words the probability of improvement is 1. (Parijat & Bagga, 2014)

Instrumentality is the perception that a given outcome of performance on their part will lead to them receiving an anticipated reward. Vroom describes this as an outcome-outcome association and also ranges on a scale of 0, where there is no expectation of desired outcome delivery to 1, where a reasonable probability of the delivery of rewards is perceived. It is an “estimate of the probability that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes” (Lunenburg, 2011, cited in Lloyd and Mertens, 2018).

Valence is the degree to which an individual has a preference for a given outcome. Vroom describes valence as “effective orientations toward particular outcomes” (1964). Valence can be positive, whereby the attainment of the reward is desired, or negative whereby the attainment of the reward is something an individual wishes to avoid. As such, valance can have a value ranging from -1 to 1. Vroom clarifies the difference between valence and value in that valence is the perception of anticipated satisfaction while the value is the actual satisfaction or utility received after attaining the reward. (Lloyd and Mertens, 2018).

References:

Chiang, C.-F. and Jang, S. (2008). An expectancy theory model for hotel employee motivation. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27(2), pp.313–322. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2007.07.017.

Lloyd and Mertens (2018). Expecting More Out of Expectancy Theory: History Urges Inclusion of the Social Context. International Management Review, 14(1), pp.28–43.

Parijat, P. (2014). Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation – An Evaluation. International Research journal of Business and management, 7(9), pp.1–3.

Ramlall, S. (2004). A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and their Implications for Employee Retention within Organizations. The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, pp.52–64.

SUCIU, MORTAN and LAZĂR (2013). Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. an Empirical Study: Civil Servant’s Performance Appraisal Influencing Expectancy. Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences, 39, pp.180–200.

Importance of Employee Motivation

Varma (2017) notes that the global business environments are rapidly changing nowadays, the organisations which adapts to the change are the one going to thrive. Motivated and satisfied employees will have committed approach towards organisational objective, in turn organisations will also have to show similar commitment towards employee objectives. It is the human capital (the knowledge skills and abilities of the human resources) as well as the relationships and motivation of the employees that leads to competitive advantage. (Wright et al. 2001 cited in Boxall et al. 2007)

Studies of the impact of motivational work systems on a range of effectiveness criteria have generated mixed results. Evidence is consistently supportive that the work content produced by such configurations (relative to more mechanistic systems) generates a sustained willingness to expend effort, positive work attitudes (e.g. job satisfaction, commitment), and lower levels of absenteeism and turnover on the part of employees (Parker and Wall 1998 cited in Boxall et al. 2007). 

According to Boxall et al (2007) in the environments where the production system is capital intensive, and technology savvy the labor cost may be low however the workers play a major role in how well & efficiently the technologies are used. In such environments it’s important to keep their motivation high to utilize their skills better. 

Work motivation is often viewed as a set of energetic forces that originate within individuals, energetic forces that determine the form, direction, and intensity of work-related behavior (Latham and Pinder, 2005, cited in Bakker and Leiter, 2010). Thus motivational processes in organizations represent in part individuals’ decisions to allocate energy over time from their energetic resources among different activities. (Bakker and Leiter, 2010)

As the millennial group continue to grow in the workplace, they are fast becoming one of the most complex and challenging generations for leaders to understand and support. This poses a continued challenge for how best to lead and motivate the millennial group in the workplace. Such difficulties are reflected in the literature, which notes that managers are increasingly reporting problems managing and motivating their younger employees (Thompson, 2012) 

According to the millennial survey done by Deloitte (2019) 49% of the millennials they have surveyed has informed that they will quit their jobs in 2 years compared to their 2017 survey this figure was 38%. Below bar chart elaborate the top reasons the millennials wanted to leave their organizations.

                                                Source: (Deloitte, 2019)

This becomes an increasing threat to the organizations to keep their employee turnover rates down. Therefore, employee motivation must be considered a key factor to focus within the HR systems.

References:

Bakker, A.B. and Leiter, M.P. (2010). Work engagement : A handbook of essential theory and research. Hove England ; New York: Psychology Press.

Boxall, P.F., Purcell, J. and Wright, P. (2008). The Oxford handbook of human resource management. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Delloite ed., (2019). The Deloitte Global Millennial Survey 2019. [online] Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited. Available at: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/About-Deloitte/deloitte-2019-millennial-survey.pdf.

Varma, C. (2017). Importance of Employee Motivation & Job Satisfaction for Organizational Performance. International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research, 6(2), pp.10–20.

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Overview

One of the earliest researchers in the area of job redesign as it affected motivation was Frederick Herzberg. Herzberg and his associates began their initial work on factors affecting work motivation in the mid-1950’s. Their first effort entailed a thorough review of existing research to that date on the subject (Ramlal, 2004). The two-factor model of motivation developed by Herzberg was based on an investigation into the sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of accountants and engineers who were asked what made them feel exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about their jobs (Armstrong, 2014). Hygiene needs governed basic physiological needs, and motivator needs governed social, esteem, and actualization needs (Bakker and Leiter, 2010). The theory is also known as two factor theory motivation factors and hygiene factors. The theory states that there are certain factors in the organizational environment which if present will be to motivate the employees and certain factors if available may satisfy the employees but if not there do not lead to dissatisfaction (Varma, 2017).  

“This research study used the Sequence of Events (CriticalIncidents) technique. I asked,"Describe a time, an incident, when you felt good, and a time, incident, when you felt bad." The results showed that people are made dissatisfied by bad environment, the extrinsics of the job. But they are seldom made satisfied by good environment, what I called the hygienes. They are made satisfied by the intrinsics of what they do, what I call the motivators” (Herzberg, F., 1959, p.xiii). “Motivation-hygiene theory was first applied to selection and train- ing in the College Recruitment program of AT&T during the early 1960s. During the same period Dr. Roy Hamlin and I added the motivators to activity therapy for patients of Veterans hospitals. Then I began trying to add the motivator factors to work through what I called job enrichment” (Herzberg, F., 1959, p.xiv). 

 

                                        Source: (EPM, 2018, cited in MacPherson, 2019)

Hygiene Factors 

The hygiene factors are also referred to as the maintenance factors and comprise of the physiological, safety and love needs from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. They are factors that are not directly related to the job but the conditions that surround doing the job (Baah, 2011). Among the factors of hygiene, we have included super- vision, interpersonal relations, physical working conditions, sal- ary, company policies and administrative practices, benefits, and job security. When these factors deteriorate to a level below that which the employee considers acceptable, then job dissatisfaction ensues (Herzberg, F., 1959).  Bakker and Leiter (2010) argue ‘hygiene factors’ will help prevent demotivation and when it lacks the employees are dissatisfied. 

Motivator Factors 

According to Herzberg, the motivator factors pertain to the job content, they are intrinsic to the job itself and do not result from “carrot and stick incentives”. They comprise the physiological need for growth and recognition. The absence of these factors does not prove highly dissatisfying but when present, they build strong levels of motivation that result in good job performance. They are therefore called satisfiers or motivators. These factors include; achievement, recognition, advancement, the work itself, the possibility of personal growth and responsibility. (Baah,2011). Bakker and Leiter (2010) states that ‘motivators’ will enhance job satisfaction & positive attitude towards the employees.

Criticism

Armstrong (2014) states Herzberg’s two-factor theory in effect identiies needs but it has been attacked by, for example, Opsahl and Dunnette (1966). The research method has been criticized because no attempt was made to measure the relationship between satisfaction and performance. It has been claimed that the two-factor nature of the theory is an inevitable result of the questioning method used by the interviewers.

References:

Armstrong, M. (2014). Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 13th Edition. Kogan Page.

Baah, K.D. (2011). Application of Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory in assessing and understanding employee motivation at work: a Ghanaian Perspective. European Journal of Business and Management, 3(9), p.2.

Bakker, A.B. and Leiter, M.P. (2010). Work engagement : a handbook of essential theory and research. Hove England ; New York: Psychology Press.

Herzberg, F. (1959). The Motivation to Work. New Brunswick: Transaction Publ.

MacPherson, A. (2019). Motivating Millennials: the journey to project success. ResearchGate.

Ramlall, S. (2004). A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and their Implications for Employee Retention within Organizations. The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, pp.55–56.

Varma, C. (2017). Importance of Employee Motivation & Job Satisfaction for Organizational Performance. International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research, 6(2), pp.10–20.

Maslow’s need hierarchy theory

Overview

According to Onah F. O (2015) in 1943 well known researcher in the study of human needs and motivation & professor of psychology Abraham Maslow from Brandeis University introduced hierarchy of needs theory. According to Maslow there are five levels of needs that motivates people which are (1) Physiological needs, (2) safety needs, (3) belonging needs, (4) esteem needs and (5) self-Actualization needs. Abraham Maslow propounded the theory of human needs which is popularly known as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in human environment in the society (Aruma & Hanachor, 2017). Self-Actualization the desire to personnel fulfilment, to develop one’s potential to became everything one is capable of becoming (Huczynski &Buchanan, 2013)

                                                          Source: (Onah, 2015).

Huczynski & Buchanan (2013) further breaks down the theory into 9 areas.

“Most textbooks ignore needs 2 to 5 in Maslow’s framework and concentrate instead on the other five needs. One explanation is that freedom of inquiry, transcendence, aesthetics, and the need to know are not relevant to work, organizations, or management. How valid is that explanation? How else can we explain why those needs are rarely discussed?” (Huczynski &Buchanan, 2013, p.294)

 

                                Source: (Huczynski, and Buchanan, 2013). 

Criticism

At the same time Armstrong (2014) argues that Maslow’s needs hierarchy has an intuitive appeal and has been very popular. But it has not been veriied by empirical research such as that conducted by Wahba and Bridwell (1979), and it has been criticized for its apparent rigidity – different people may have different priorities and the underpinning assumption that everyone has the same needs is invalid. It is difficult to accept that needs progress steadily up the hierarchy and Maslow himself expressed doubts about the validity of a strictly ordered hierarchy. But he did emphasize that the higher-order needs are more significant. 

References:

Armstrong, M. (2014). Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 13th Edition. Kogan Page.

Aruma, E.O. and Hanachor, M.E. (2017). Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Assessment of Neends in Community Development. International Journal of Development and Economic Sustainability, 5(7), pp.15–27.

Huczynski, A.A. and Buchanan, D.A. (2013). Organizational behaviour. 8th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Onah, F.O. (2015). Human Resource Management 4th Edition. John Jacob’s Classic Publishers Ltd. 

Motivation Theories

There are several theories those talks about what’s motivation, how’s motivation achieved etc., most of these theories discusses the similar aspects of motivation, Following theories are some mostly cited ones came by some early scholars. 

Motivational theories have been grouped in three main categories by taking into consideration different approaches as it follows: content theories, process theories and consolidation theories. Content theories argue that people act in certain ways based on their needs (such as the ones of Maslow and McGregor). Consolidation theories emphasise the connection between individual’s behavior and certain specific results (such as the ones of Thorndike and Skinner). Process theories try to explain how motivation occurs, what factors influence it and what the relations between these factors are (such as the ones of Vroom and Locke). (SUCIU et al, 2013)

Maslow’s need hierarchy theory

In 1954, Maslow first published Motivation and Personality, which introduced his theory about how people satisfy various personal needs in the context of their work. He postulated, based on his observations as a humanistic psychologist, that there is a general pattern of needs recognition and satisfaction that people follow in generally the same sequence. He also theorized that a person could not recognize or pursue the next higher need in the hierarchy until her or his currently recognized need was substantially or completely satisfied, a concept called prepotency (Gawel, 1996).

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory is constructed of a two-dimensional paradigm of factors affecting people's attitudes about work. He concluded that such factors as company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary are hygiene factors rather than motivators. According to the theory, the absence of hygiene factors can create job dissatisfaction, but their presence does not motivate or create satisfaction. (Gawel, 1996).

McClelland’s theory of needs

Some people who have a compelling drive to succeed are striving for personal achievement rather than the rewards of success per se. These people have the desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before (Robbins, 1993). McClelland’s in the publication The Achieving Society, published in 1961 described the theory of needs focusing on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation (Ramlal, 2004).

ERG theory of motivation

Armstrong (2014) explains in his book that ERG Theory is more convincing & simpler which postulated three primary categories of needs: Existence needs Relatedness needs & Growth needs.

Equity theory of motivation

Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards they receive for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive. Based on one’s inputs, such as effort, experience, education, and competence, one can compare outcomes such as salary levels, increases, recognition and other factors (Ramlal, 2004). When people perceive an imbalance in their outcome-input ratio relative to others, tension is created. This tension provides the basis for motivation, as people strive for what they perceive as equity and fairness (Robbins, 1993). 

Self-determination theory

As formulated by Deci and Ryan (2000) this theory states that individuals are motivated by the need to achieve three fundamental goals: striving for competence, autonomy and relatedness (Armstrong, 2014). 

References:

Armstrong, M. (2014). Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 13th Edition. Kogan Page.

Gawel, J.E. (1996). Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 5(11), pp.1–3.

Ramlall, S. (2004). A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and their Implications for Employee Retention within Organizations. The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, pp.55–56.

Robbins, S. (1993). Organizational Behavior 6th Edition. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

SUCIU, MORTAN and LAZĂR (2013). Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. an Empirical Study: Civil Servant’s Performance Appraisal Influencing Expectancy. Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences, 39, pp.180–200.

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